Deformation gradient tensor (Fcij) deforms effect region (ec) to effect region (EC), and deforms circumscribed shape data (sc) to circumscribed shape data (SC).

The strain velocity is then calculated (14) as a gradient of tissue velocity.

Young's Modulus is the gradient of the stress-strain curve.

The deformation occurs due to the effective strain gradient across the monomorph thickness which is accomplished by varying the electric field across the thickness or the strain parameter across the thickness.

More efficient heat removal from the target results in a target with a lesser thermal gradient and therefore less mechanical bowing/deformation.

The desired gradient of wire deformation is then supplied to a controller as a nominal value, this desired gradient being dependent on the current status of the process.

Each strain inducing section (12a) is provided with a strain sensor (20) for detecting strain of the strain inducing section (12a).

The ferromagnetic or magnetically permeable element (26) experiences a torque about the fulcrum (24) when a magnetic field gradient is present, and causes a strain on the shell (16).

The environmental gradient can be a temperature gradient and/or a humidity gradient.

A distortion correction unit (14) corrects the distortion of the distorted image by a distortion correction equation by using the distortion parameter.

The distortion estimating portion can estimate a distortion.

Said deforming device comprises a deforming tube (2) capable of determined deformation, and a deforming cone (1) associated with the deforming tube (2).

Deformation gradient tensor (Fcij) deforms effect region (ec) to effect region (EC), and deforms circumscribed shape data (sc) to circumscribed shape data (SC).

In one embodiment, the gradient is a pH gradient, for example, a step gradient.

An intensity gradient image comprising a plurality of intensity gradient image pixels is determined, each intensity gradient image pixel representing the magnitude of an intensity gradient.