Two planar microwave circuits measure the permittivity of the shallow and deep layer.

A method of correcting for the roughness of a pavement material divides the pavement into a shallow layer and a deep layer.

The surface of the skin requires removal of the shallow layer.

The method is useful, for example, for restoring crystallinity and/or for electrically activating a dopant species after shallow dopant ion implantation for forming shallow junctions.

DUFF: The shallow layer of organic soil and litter of the forest floor which lies over the general mineral soil.

The inventive method uses an FWI algorithm to generate a subsurface model from primary reflections (101) in a shallow layer before first arrival of multiple reflections (101).